In 2026, you’ll find exciting destinations perfect for solo travel on a budget! Explore Lisbon’s vibrant streets and enjoy its lively nightlife, or immerse yourself in Hanoi’s rich culture and affordable street food. Mexico City offers a mix of history and culinary delights, while Budapest enchants with its stunning architecture and thermal baths. Sofia provides cozy accommodations and fascinating free tours, and Chiang Mai’s scenic beauty and tempting markets await your discovery. Don’t forget Medellín, where street art and vibrant nightlife collide! Each location offers unique experiences just waiting for you to explore further.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- Lisbon, Portugal offers a mix of vibrant culture, affordable public transport, and lively nightlife, making it ideal for solo travelers.
- Hanoi, Vietnam features rich culture, budget-friendly dining, and opportunities for exploration, providing an engaging experience for solo adventurers.
- Mexico City, Mexico boasts low-cost attractions, delicious street food, and a lively atmosphere, perfect for budget-conscious solo travelers.
- Budapest, Hungary combines stunning architecture with lively nightlife in safe environments, creating an inviting destination for solo travelers on a budget.
- Chiang Mai, Thailand offers affordable transportation, delightful street food, and cultural experiences, making it a great option for solo exploration.
LISBON, PORTUGAL
Lisbon, Portugal, is a vibrant city that invites solo travelers with its charming streets and rich history. As you wander through the cobbled alleyways of Alfama, you’ll feel the essence of Lisbon culture enveloping you. The sounds of Fado music drift from local taverns, beckoning you to immerse yourself in the soulful melodies that tell tales of love and longing.
Getting around is a breeze with Lisbon transportation options, from the iconic trams to the efficient metro system. You’ll find exploring neighborhoods like Bairro Alto and Chiado effortless.
As the sun sets, the city transforms; Lisbon nightlife buzzes with energy. Bars and clubs fill the streets, offering everything from laid-back lounges to electrifying dance floors. You can easily find a spot to enjoy a drink while soaking up the lively atmosphere.
If you’re lucky enough to visit during one of Lisbon’s festivals, you’re in for a treat. Events like the Festas de Santo António showcase the city’s vibrant spirit, featuring parades, street parties, and delectable local cuisine. According to Travelocity, safety, loneliness, and expense are the three biggest reasons people hate to travel solo. But I’ve been adventuring on my own for more than two decades, and I find it freeing. I can travel at my own pace and on my own budget. I can easily score a table for one—even at top restaurants that often require bookings weeks in advance. And I connect more with locals.
As you stroll through local markets, Lisbon shopping becomes an adventure in itself, with boutiques offering unique handicrafts and artisanal goods.
Lisbon history is palpable at every turn, with stunning architecture and monuments that reflect its storied past. Whether you’re sipping coffee at a quaint café or admiring the views from São Jorge Castle, you’ll find that Lisbon invites you to embrace freedom and adventure.
Hanoi, Vietnam
Hanoi, Vietnam, is a treasure trove of vibrant experiences waiting to be discovered by solo travelers. As you wander the bustling streets, you’ll find a rich tapestry of history and culture interwoven with modern life. Immerse yourself in the local cuisine, where a steaming bowl of pho or a crispy banh mi can be enjoyed at a street stall for just a few dollars. Every meal is an opportunity to savor flavors that tell the story of this incredible city.
Exploring Hanoi means immersing yourself in its cultural experiences. Visit the ancient temples and the stunning Hoan Kiem Lake, where you can reflect in tranquility amid the hustle and bustle. The vibrant Old Quarter teems with shops and cafes, allowing you to soak up the local atmosphere while making new friends along the way.
Solo safety is a priority in Hanoi, and you’ll find that the city is generally welcoming to travelers. It’s a good idea to stick to well-lit areas at night and keep an eye on your belongings, but the warmth of the locals will often make you feel right at home.
With a mix of adventure and relaxation, Hanoi invites you to explore at your own pace. Whether you’re indulging in a traditional tea ceremony or taking a cooking class, Hanoi offers endless opportunities for personal growth and unforgettable memories.
Mexico City, Mexico
When you think of Mexico City, imagine vibrant streets filled with history, art, and mouthwatering food—all without breaking the bank.
You’ll find a range of affordable accommodations, from cozy hostels to charming boutique hotels, perfect for solo travelers.
Plus, the city’s budget-friendly attractions and delicious local cuisine make it an ideal destination for your next adventure.
Affordable Accommodation Options
Finding affordable accommodation in Mexico City can be a breeze if you know where to look. Immerse yourself in the world of hostels, where vibrant atmospheres and budget-friendly rates await. Check out hostel reviews online to find the perfect spot that suits your vibe. Many hostels offer shared accommodations, allowing you to meet fellow travelers and exchange budget tips.
Don’t overlook community stays through platforms that connect you with locals. This option not only saves you money but also immerses you in authentic experiences. Use discount websites to snag deals on both hotels and hostels, giving you more freedom to explore the city.
Travel hacks abound on solo traveler forums; tap into these resources for insider knowledge on the best places to stay, hidden gems, and essential backpacking tips to make the most of your budget adventure. Local networks can also provide leads on hidden gems that won’t break the bank.
Ultimately, whether you choose a lively hostel or a cozy community stay, Mexico City’s affordable accommodation options will help you maintain your budget while experiencing all the city has to offer. Embrace the adventure and enjoy the freedom of discovering this vibrant destination!
Budget-Friendly Attractions
While exploring Mexico City on a budget, you’ll discover a wealth of attractions that won’t cost you a dime or will only require a small entry fee. Start your adventure with a free walking tour through the historic center, where you’ll marvel at stunning architecture, like the Palacio de Bellas Artes and the Metropolitan Cathedral.
These engaging tours not only offer insights into the city’s rich history but also connect you with fellow travelers.
For a small fee, you can visit the National Museum of Anthropology, home to incredible artifacts from Mexico’s ancient civilizations. After soaking in the culture, hop on the reliable public transport to Chapultepec Park.
This sprawling green space is perfect for a leisurely stroll, and you can even visit the Chapultepec Castle for a minimal entry fee, enjoying breathtaking views of the city from the top.
Don’t miss the vibrant street art in neighborhoods like Roma and Condesa, which you can explore for free.
With so many budget-friendly attractions, Mexico City invites you to roam freely and experience its vibrant spirit without breaking the bank.
Local Cuisine on a Budget
Whether you’re savoring street tacos from a bustling market stall or indulging in a cozy café, experiencing Mexico City’s local cuisine on a budget is an adventure for your taste buds. Immerse yourself in the vibrant atmosphere of local markets where you can sample traditional dishes without breaking the bank. Don’t miss out on food carts offering mouthwatering delights like tamales and elotes.
Consider joining a food tour to uncover hidden gems and learn about the culinary history while meeting fellow travelers. If you’re feeling adventurous, sign up for a cooking class to bring home the flavors of Mexico.
Here’s a quick guide to local culinary experiences:
| Experience | Description | Cost Estimate |
| Street Food | Tacos, quesadillas, and tamales from carts | $1 – $5 |
| Budget Restaurants | Affordable eateries serving traditional meals | $5 – $15 |
| Culinary Festivals | Local events showcasing diverse cuisines | Free – $10 |
With so many delicious options, you’ll find that satisfying your cravings in Mexico City doesn’t have to be expensive. So grab a plate and dig in!
Budapest, Hungary
Nestled between the banks of the Danube, Budapest enchants solo travelers with its rich history and vibrant culture. As you stroll through the city, you’ll be greeted by stunning architecture, from the iconic Parliament building to the majestic Fisherman’s Bastion. The energy is infectious, inviting you to explore every corner.
One of the must-try experiences in Budapest is indulging in its famous thermal baths. These natural hot springs offer a perfect escape, allowing you to unwind in opulent surroundings—an ideal self care activity after a day of exploring the city. Széchenyi Thermal Bath is a favorite, with its outdoor pools and grand architecture, while Gellért Bath boasts stunning art nouveau design. You’ll feel rejuvenated and ready to take on your next adventure.
When the sun sets, Budapest transforms into a lively playground. Immerse yourself in the unique atmosphere of ruin pubs, where you can sip on locally brewed craft beers in quirky settings filled with mismatched furniture and eclectic art. Szimpla Kert, the most famous ruin pub, is a must-visit. It’s a place where you can meet fellow travelers, share stories, and soak up the vibrant nightlife without breaking the bank.
Whether you’re wandering through the charming streets of the Jewish Quarter or enjoying a scenic river cruise, Budapest offers endless opportunities for solo exploration. Its affordability, combined with unforgettable experiences, makes it an essential stop on your budget-friendly journey.
SOFIA, BULGARIA
Sofia, Bulgaria, is a hidden gem for budget-conscious solo travelers like you.
You’ll find a range of affordable accommodations that suit any style, along with budget-friendly attractions that showcase the city’s rich history and vibrant culture.
Don’t miss out on sampling the delicious local cuisine, which offers a delightful taste of Bulgaria without breaking the bank.
Affordable Accommodation Options
While exploring the vibrant streets of Bulgaria’s capital, you’ll find a range of affordable accommodation options that cater to every budget. From cozy hostels to welcoming couchsurfing opportunities, Sofia offers something for everyone seeking adventure without breaking the bank.
Start your journey by checking out some highly-rated hostels. Reading hostel reviews online can guide you to places like Hostel Mostel, known for its friendly atmosphere and social events. You’ll meet fellow travelers and share stories over a beer in the common area.
If you prefer a more local experience, consider using couchsurfing. It’s a fantastic way to save money while connecting with locals who can share their hidden gems in the city.
For a unique twist, look for guesthouses or small family-run hotels that often provide breakfast and a more personalized experience. With so many options at your fingertips, you’ll have the freedom to choose what suits your travel style best.
Remember to book in advance, especially during peak seasons, to secure the best deals. Enjoy the thrill of discovering Sofia without worrying about your accommodation budget!
Budget-Friendly Attractions
Exploring a city like Sofia doesn’t have to strain your wallet, thanks to a wealth of budget-friendly attractions. Canada is world-renowned for having some of the friendliest people, so this comes as no surprise. Finding where to travel alone for the first time also often boils down to a nice balance of adventure and safety, and Canada is right at that intersection. I love Montréal for a winter weekend escape or Québec for a fall road trip. If you want to experience the Canadian wilderness, head to Banff, where I found some of the most breathtaking hikes.
Start your adventure with a free walking tour, where you’ll discover the city’s rich history and stunning architecture. From the iconic Alexander Nevsky Cathedral to the charming streets of the city center, you’ll find enthralling stories awaiting you at every turn.
Don’t miss out on the vibrant cultural festivals held throughout the year. These events showcase local music, art, and traditions, giving you a taste of Bulgaria’s lively spirit without costing a dime. The Sofia International Film Festival and the Sofia Music Weeks are just a couple of examples where you can soak in the culture while mingling with locals and fellow travelers.
For a tranquil escape, stroll through the beautiful Borisova Gradina Park, where you can relax by the lake or enjoy a leisurely picnic.
With its lush greenery and scenic paths, it’s a perfect spot to unwind. Sofia’s budget-friendly attractions allow you to experience the city’s charm and culture without breaking the bank, leaving you free to explore at your own pace.
Local Cuisine Experiences
When you plunge into the local cuisine of Sofia, you’ll uncover a treasure trove of flavors that reflect Bulgaria’s rich culinary heritage. The vibrant food scene invites you to savor every bite, especially if you’re traveling solo and looking for budget-friendly experiences.
Here’s what you shouldn’t miss:
- Street Food: Try the famous banitsa, a flaky pastry filled with cheese, or grab a hearty kebapche, grilled minced meat served with fresh bread. Street vendors offer these delights at affordable prices, making them perfect for a quick lunch.
- Cooking Classes: Dive deeper into Bulgarian cuisine by joining a cooking class. You’ll learn to prepare traditional dishes like shopska salad and moussaka, guided by local chefs who share their culinary secrets.
- Farmers’ Markets: Stroll through Zhenski Pazar, where you can sample fresh fruits, homemade jams, and artisan cheeses. It’s a fantastic way to experience local flavors while supporting small producers.
- Local Taverns: Enjoy a meal at a traditional tavern (mehana) where you can indulge in rich stews and local wines—all at budget-friendly prices.
Exploring Sofia’s cuisine will surely be a highlight of your solo adventure!
Chiang Mai, Thailand
Chiang Mai, Thailand, offers an enchanting blend of rich culture and stunning landscapes that make it a top destination for budget-conscious solo travelers in 2026. As you wander through the ancient temples and vibrant markets, you’ll immerse yourself in the city’s unique cultural experiences.
Don’t miss the iconic Wat Phra That Doi Suthep, perched high on a mountain, where you can soak in breathtaking views and spiritual serenity.
Getting around Chiang Mai is a breeze with a few transportation tips. You can hop on a red songthaew, a shared taxi that’s both affordable and a fun way to meet fellow travelers.
Alternatively, renting a bicycle allows you to explore at your own pace, discovering hidden gems in the city’s charming lanes and gardens—an enjoyable way to combine adventure with a bit of self care.
Street food stalls offer delicious meals at unbeatable prices, so indulge in local delicacies like khao soi or mango sticky rice without breaking the bank. As you savor these culinary delights, you’ll find that Chiang Mai’s warm and friendly locals enhance your experience, creating a welcoming atmosphere that encourages interaction.
In the evenings, the bustling night markets come alive, where you can shop for unique handicrafts and souvenirs while enjoying live performances. Engaging with artisans gives you deeper insights into the local culture, making your journey even more enriching.
With its affordable accommodations and abundance of cultural experiences, Chiang Mai is the perfect playground for your solo adventure in 2026.
Medellín, Colombia
After soaking in the serene beauty of Chiang Mai, consider heading to Medellín, Colombia, where vibrant energy and innovation await. This city is perfect for solo travelers looking to immerse themselves in rich culture and lively experiences without breaking the bank.
You’ll find a delightful blend of modernity and tradition, making it a unique spot to explore. Traveling solo can throw up a whole slew of possibilities, from roaming free on a flexible schedule, to making new friends along your adventures. While not for everyone (and yes, safety is a priority when traveling alone), solo travel can open up a door for reflection and introspection in a destination far removed from home—and the ability to choose your own adventure to enjoy by and with yourself. When challenging your discomfort, you might even discover that you handle situations with more tact, poise, and confidence than expected (or, learn what you might need to work on for the future).
Here are four reasons to pack your bags for Medellín:
- Cultural Immersion: Stroll through the colorful Comuna 13, where street art tells stories of resilience and transformation. Engage with locals and discover their rich history through guided tours.
- Vibrant Nightlife: As the sun sets, Medellín comes alive with music and dance. Head to El Poblado for trendy bars and clubs where you can mingle with fellow travelers and locals alike.
- Affordable Gastronomy: Savor delicious Colombian cuisine at local eateries. From arepas to bandeja paisa, you’ll find mouthwatering options that won’t strain your wallet.
- Green Spaces: Relax in the lush Botanical Garden or take a scenic hike up to Parque Arví. These spots offer stunning views and a refreshing change of pace away from the urban hustle.
With its combination of cultural immersion and vibrant nightlife, Medellín is a destination that promises adventure and connection.
You’ll leave with memories that inspire freedom and a spirit of exploration.
RELATED STUDIES ABOUT BEST PLACES TO SOLO TRAVEL
As you commence your solo adventure, remember that the world is a tapestry of experiences waiting to be woven into your journey. Each destination—Lisbon’s sun-kissed streets or Hanoi’s bustling markets—offers unique stories and connections. Traveling on a budget doesn’t mean sacrificing richness; it means discovering value in every moment. So pack your bag, embrace the unknown, and let these vibrant cities inspire you to create memories that resonate far beyond the price tag.
Understanding Travel Behavior and Mode Choice Prediction for University Commuters: Insights from Discrete Choice Models and Machine Learning
Background:
University campuses are major trip generators, yet the commuting behavior of students, staff, and faculty remains under-researched and poorly represented in conventional travel demand models. Unlike the general population, university commuters exhibit distinct mobility patterns shaped by unique combinations of socio-demographics, household constraints, built environment, and institutional policies (e.g., subsidized transit passes, parking availability). While previous studies have largely been descriptive or limited to single-mode analyses, there is a critical need for predictive, comparative modeling that both forecasts mode choice and reveals actionable policy levers.
Objective:
This study has two interconnected aims:
- Develop and compare the predictive performance of traditional discrete choice models (Multinomial Logit, MNL) against four machine learning (ML) classifiers—Decision Tree (DT), Random Forest (RF), XGBoost, and Artificial Neural Network (ANN)—in forecasting university commuters’ primary travel mode (car, transit, walk, bike).
- Identify and quantify the most influential factors driving mode choice, with emphasis on policy-modifiable variables (transit pass access, car availability, built environment, travel distance/time).
Methodology:
- Data Source: 2020 Commuting Habits Survey at the University of Calgary, Canada (N = 867 after preprocessing; 430 students, 368 staff, 69 faculty).
- Feature Engineering:
- Travel time/distance estimated via Google Distance Matrix API (10 random points per postal code → campus).
- Transit stop density (bus/LRT) calculated using GIS spatial join with city transit datasets.
- Socio-demographics, household attributes, and self-reported travel behavior.
- Models:
- MNL: 47 alternative-specific utility specifications tested; final model with 12 variables, mode-specific coefficients, car as reference.
- ML: DT (pruned, Gini impurity), RF & XGBoost (tuned via grid search, 10-fold CV), ANN (2 hidden layers, dropout 0.1, learning rate 0.0001).
- Imbalance Handling: Four resampling techniques applied strictly within training folds (ROS, SMOTE; RUS, Tomek Links).
- Evaluation Metrics: Accuracy, F1-score, confusion matrices; feature importance (coefficient significance for MNL; impurity drop/permutation for ML).
Key Findings:
- Predictive Performance:
- MNL: Baseline accuracy 62.6%, F1 0.41; significant bias toward majority modes (car/transit), poor recall for walk/bike.
- Untuned ML: XGBoost 65.9% accuracy; tuned ensembles 72–73% accuracy.
- With Oversampling (SMOTE/ROS):
- XGBoost: 76.0% accuracy, F1 0.71
- RF: 75.5% accuracy, F1 0.74
- ANN: 68.5% accuracy, F1 0.57
- Oversampling outperformed undersampling; dataset size too small to tolerate sample deletion.
- Ensemble methods (RF, XGBoost) consistently outperformed single classifiers and MNL, with superior balance across all four modes.
- Variable Importance & Behavioral Insights:
- MNL (mode-specific, interpretable):
- Transit: Car ownership (–, strongest), transit pass (+, 2nd), income (–), household size (+).
- Walk: Travel distance (–, strongest), car ownership (–), household size (+), travel frequency (+).
- Car: Travel distance (+), season effect (–), age (+); household attributes insignificant.
- Bike: Education level (+), car ownership (–), season effect (–).
- Model fit: ρ2 (0)=0.33,ρ2 (c)=0.38.
- ML (predictive, non-linear):
- Binary access dominates: Car access (DT: 36% importance) and transit pass (DT: 23%) are top predictors.
- Travel convenience: Transit distance, drive distance, bus density consistently high across RF/XGBoost.
- ANN prioritizes continuous variables: Car ownership (# of vehicles), walk distance, travel frequency—revealing intensity effects beyond binary access.
- Non-linear thresholds identified: Sharp decline in walk/bike beyond certain distances; interaction between car access and transit stop density.
- Cross-Model Consistency & Complementarity:
- MNL provides causal, mode-specific directionality (e.g., transit pass ↑ transit utility; car ownership ↓ transit/walk/bike).
- ML captures non-compensatory, threshold, and interaction effects invisible to linear utility specifications.
- Both model families agree on the dominant roles of car access, transit pass, travel distance, and transit infrastructure.
Policy Implications & Actionable Recommendations:
- Subsidized Transit Passes Are Highly Effective:
- Universal UPass programs should be continued and expanded to staff/faculty.
- Even modest discounts may yield significant mode shift given the strength of this predictor.
- Car Availability Is the Single Largest Barrier to Sustainable Mode Choice:
- Universities cannot control household car ownership, but can reduce the convenience of driving:
- Increase parking fees; cap permit issuance (especially for students living ≤5 km).
- Implement car-free zones, carpool priority permits, or parking cash-out programs.
- Transit Infrastructure Matters—Collaborate with City Agencies:
- Higher bus/LRT stop density near home ↑ transit use.
- University should partner with municipal transit authorities to improve last-mile connectivity and ensure high-frequency service on corridors serving student housing clusters.
- Active Mode Adoption Requires Distance- and Weather-Sensitive Interventions:
- Walking/biking drop sharply beyond 3–5 km; on-campus housing and affordable housing near campus are structural solutions.
- Winter maintenance of bike lanes/paths and weather-protected bike parking address seasonality barriers.
- Expand bike-share/e-scooter programs for short trips.
- Targeted Behavior Change Programs:
- Younger commuters (students) are more transit-oriented; older, higher-income staff/faculty are car-dependent.
- New student/staff orientation should include personalized commute planning, transit familiarization, and “try transit/bike” incentive weeks.
- Data-Driven Planning Requires Continued Investment:
- ML models revealed non-linearities and interactions missed by MNL; agencies should complement, not replace, traditional models with ML for scenario testing.
- Collection of explicit travel cost data (fares, parking fees, fuel) would improve both MNL and ML policy sensitivity.
Methodological Contributions:
- First study to systematically compare MNL with four ML algorithms on a dedicated university commuter dataset, with rigorous handling of class imbalance, feature engineering, and cross-validation.
- Demonstrates that MNL and ML are complementary, not substitutable:
- MNL for inference, theory testing, and mode-specific elasticities.
- ML for prediction, non-linear effects, and high-dimensional interactions.
- Provides a reproducible analytical pipeline (feature construction, resampling, tuning, multi-metric evaluation) applicable to other institutional travel surveys.
Limitations & Future Research:
- Cross-sectional design; causal inference limited.
- No explicit travel cost variables; reliance on proxies (transit pass, car ownership).
- Single university, single city; findings may not generalize to other geographic or policy contexts.
- Future work should:
- Integrate revealed preference GPS data with stated preference surveys.
- Test transferability of models across institutions.
- Incorporate attitudinal and lifestyle factors (e.g., environmental concern, habit strength).
- Evaluate policy scenarios using calibrated ML models.
Conclusion:
This study provides the most comprehensive comparative analysis to date of university commuter mode choice using both discrete choice and machine learning paradigms. It confirms that access-based variables (car, transit pass) are the dominant determinants, and that travel distance, transit infrastructure, and seasonal effects shape the feasibility of sustainable modes. The results offer evidence-based, actionable policy levers for universities seeking to reduce single-occupancy vehicle trips, lower emissions, and enhance campus sustainability. Critically, the findings demonstrate that MNL and ML are not competitors but collaborators: MNL delivers interpretable, mode-specific behavioral parameters; ML uncovers non-linearities and maximizes predictive accuracy. Together, they provide a more complete, decision-relevant understanding of travel behavior—essential for designing effective transportation demand management strategies in the post-pandemic era.
| REFERENCE: Hassan Kamkar, Saeid Saidi, Mohammad Ansari Esfeh, Understanding travel behavior and mode choice prediction for university commuters: insights from discrete choice models and machine learning, Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Volume 34, 2025, 101754, ISSN 2590-1982, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2025.101754. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590198225004336) |
The Effects of Travel Time Use on Activity-Travel Behaviour: Knowledge Consolidation and Research Agenda for Current and Future Transport Options
Background and Purpose
Travel time use—conducting activities while travelling—has gained recognition as a significant component of activity-travel behaviour, challenging the traditional view that travel time is always “wasted.” This paper provides the first systematic consolidation of knowledge on how travel time use affects five dimensions of activity-travel behaviour: time-use, mode choice, value of travel time savings (VTTS), travel experience, and second-order effects. The authors also address a critical taxonomy issue in the literature and propose a research agenda for current and future transport options, including automated vehicles (AVs).
Key Conceptual Contribution: Taxonomy Clarification
The paper identifies a persistent taxonomy problem: the interchangeable use of “travel time use” and “(travel-based) multitasking.” The authors propose a clear distinction:
- Travel time use should serve as the overarching, neutral term for undertaking any activities while travelling.
- (Travel-based) multitasking is a special case occurring only when two or more cognitively/physically demanding tasks overlap—specifically when:
- Physically and Cognitively Demanding Travel (PCDT, e.g., driving) overlaps with active activities; or
- Multiple travel-based activities occur simultaneously.
This reframing avoids framing bias and recognises that travel can function as an environment for activities rather than always competing for cognitive resources.
State of Knowledge: Predominant Hypotheses vs. Empirical Evidence
The authors conducted a meta-synthesis to identify prevailing hypotheses and reviewed 66 studies to assess empirical support.
- Time-Use
Hypothesis (DH1): Activity transfer (moving activities into travel to release out-of-trip time) modifies daily scheduling and travel demand.
Evidence: Limited. Incidence varies (29–56% depending on mode/purpose), but impacts on full-day schedules and travel demand remain largely unexamined. Modelling frameworks exist but are rarely empirically implemented.
- Mode Choice
Hypotheses (DH2 & DH3): Preferences for travel time use increase the choice of passengerised modes (DH2) and AVs (DH3).
Evidence: Inconclusive. Studies fail to control for self-selection (causality direction unclear). Qualitative evidence suggests some travellers choose modes because of activity opportunities, but others prefer private modes for privacy-sensitive tasks. AV evidence is mixed and fragmented across diverse vehicle characteristics and activity types.
- Value of Travel Time Savings
Hypothesis (DH4): Travel time use reduces VTTS.
Evidence: Supported in principle, but effect sizes are likely overestimated. Endogeneity bias (travellers with inherently higher value of time are more likely to engage in activities) and hypothetical bias in SP studies undermine reliability. Within-person experiments show modest, not dramatic, reductions.
- Travel Experience
Hypothesis (DH5): Travel time use makes travellers more sensitive to conditions/facilities that enable activities.
Evidence: Scarce and narrowly focused on ICT-based activities. Studies diverge on whether enabling activities improves or complicates satisfaction. Core service quality (reliability, seating) still outweighs activity-enabling facilities for most travellers.
- Second-Order Effects
Hypotheses (DH4-C & DH5-C): Travel time use affects residential/job relocation, trip generation, route choice, and departure time.
Evidence: Embryonic. Only AV scenarios examined; evidence on relocation and induced travel exists but is inconclusive regarding urban sprawl. No empirical evidence on route choice or temporal demand shifts.
Research Gaps and Agenda
The paper identifies eight priority areas for future research:
- Time-use modelling: Develop empirically implementable frameworks that capture full-day scheduling effects and post-COVID activity transfer dynamics.
- Mode choice causality: Control for self-selection bias; include direct survey questions (e.g., “I chose this mode because I wanted to conduct activities”).
- VTTS estimation: Address endogeneity through joint RP/SP designs and position travel time use within broader time-use and time-pressure contexts.
- AV research consistency: Reduce fragmentation; conduct pilot tests resembling real-world conditions to mitigate hypothetical bias.
- Travel experience equity: Move beyond ICT-centric research; investigate non-digital activities and facilities to avoid favouring digitally privileged groups.
- Second-order effects: Extend research to current modes; examine departure time shifts, route choices, and relocation decisions from a travel-time-use perspective.
- Data collection: Shift from pre-2017 cross-sectional data to longitudinal and real-time methods capturing post-pandemic digital activity expansion.
- Geographic coverage: Address the 90% concentration in developed economies; investigate travel time use in emerging economies.
Implications for Policy and Appraisal
- Travel time use has tangible but often overstated effects on behaviour; appraisal practices should adopt more conservative VTTS adjustments until endogeneity is adequately controlled.
- Investments in activity-enabling facilities (Wi-Fi, seating, power) should be targeted and evidence-based, recognising they matter primarily after core service quality is secured.
- The sustainability potential of activity transfer (e.g., making public transport and active modes more attractive) remains underexploited and warrants policy attention.
- AV benefits related to travel time use are not automatic; they depend on interior design, activity types, and traveller heterogeneity—caution is advised against overoptimistic demand forecasts.
Conclusion: Travel time use influences activity-travel behaviour across multiple dimensions, but the strength, causality, and generalisability of these effects remain uncertain. This review provides a consolidated foundation and a clear roadmap for researchers and practitioners to move from hypothesised benefits to robust, actionable evidence.
| REFERENCE: Ana Luiza S. de Sá, Patrícia S. Lavieri, Jacek Pawlak, Aruna Sivakumar, Russell G. Thompson, The effects of travel time use on activity-travel behaviour: knowledge consolidation and research agenda for current and future transport options, Transport Reviews, Volume 45, Issue 6, 2025, Pages 869-896, ISSN 0144-1647, https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2025.2517210. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014416472500025X) |
Unpacking solo driving: how contextual and psychological factors shape commuters’ intentions in the Paris region
Background and Objectives
Solo driving for commuting remains highly prevalent across Europe and North America despite urgent climate, congestion, and public health challenges. In the Paris Region, 81.5% of commuting trips are made alone—a figure that continues to rise. This study investigates the psychological and contextual determinants of commuters’ intention to reduce solo driving, with two main objectives: (1) to develop and test an extended behavioural model integrating multiple theoretical frameworks, and (2) to identify key leverage points for policy intervention in the Paris metropolitan area.
Method
A quantitative correlational study was conducted via an online survey of 1,356 solo-driving commuters in the Paris Region, recruited through quota sampling by gender and department of residence. The questionnaire operationalised constructs from:
- Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) – attitudes, behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs, perceived behavioural control
- Norm Activation Model (NAM) – personal norms, awareness of consequences
- COM-B framework – perceived opportunities (structural enablers)
- Health Belief Model – perceived air pollution risk and severity
Hierarchical linear regression was employed to assess incremental explanatory power across five conceptually defined blocks.
Key Findings
- Intention levels – Parisian commuters show low-to-moderate willingness to reduce solo driving (M = 3.72/7). Only 28.7% express strong intention; 35.7% report low intention.
- Explanatory power – The extended TPB model accounts for 55.6% of variance in intention to reduce solo driving, a substantial improvement over the baseline sociodemographic model (12.1%).
- Strongest predictors of intention were:
- Personal norms (β = 0.24) – moral obligation to act
- Perceived barrier-related control (β = 0.14) – influence of obstacles
- Perceived opportunities (β = 0.13) – structural enablers (transport quality, cost, remote work)
- Facilitating control beliefs (β = 0.12) – self-efficacy regarding alternatives
- Motivation to comply (β = 0.11) – social influence
- Expected benefits (β = 0.11) – anticipated advantages
- Sociodemographic effects – Younger and middle-aged adults show stronger intentions, but these effects become negligible once psychological and contextual variables are included. Commuting frequency and duration exert significant influence: long morning commutes reduce intention, while long return trips increase it, suggesting asymmetric effects of temporal constraints.
- Spatial disparities – Residents of outer suburbs (lower public transport accessibility) report significantly weaker intentions than those in Paris and inner suburbs.
- Non-significant factors – Perceived air pollution risk and severity did not significantly predict intention, indicating that environmental health threats alone are insufficient motivators without accompanying structural and moral levers.
Theoretical Contributions
This study advances sustainable mobility behaviour modelling by:
- Demonstrating the added value of integrating COM-B’s ‘opportunity’ construct into the TPB expectancy-value framework, bridging individual motivation and structural conditions
- Confirming the central role of moral norms (NAM) in shaping pro-environmental commuting intentions, above and beyond cost-benefit calculations
- Showing that behavioural, normative, and control beliefs operate jointly, supporting socio-cognitive models of transport mode choice
Policy and Practical Implications
- Strengthen opportunity structures
- Expand reliable, affordable public transport with reduced waiting times
- Develop safe cycling and pedestrian infrastructure
- Provide financial incentives (e.g., public transport subsidies, bike purchase support, carpooling rewards)
- Promote teleworking and flexible work schedules to reduce peak-hour constraints
- Activate moral and social norms
- Deploy awareness campaigns highlighting environmental and congestion impacts of solo driving
- Use normative feedback and community-based programmes to reinforce social expectations
- Engage employers in mobility plans and normative messaging
- Adopt territorially differentiated strategies
- Tailor interventions to urban, peri-urban, and suburban contexts
- In low-density areas, combine car dependency reduction with equitable spatial planning and shared/on-demand mobility services
- Move beyond information-deficit approaches
- Risk communication on air pollution is insufficient alone; structural and moral levers must accompany awareness-raising
Conclusion
Reducing solo driving in metropolitan areas requires an integrated approach that simultaneously addresses psychological motivation, normative influence, and structural opportunity. This study provides robust empirical evidence from the Paris Region demonstrating that sustainable commuting intentions are shaped less by who commuters are than by what they believe, value, and perceive as feasible. Policies that couple infrastructural investment with social norm activation and moral engagement offer the greatest potential for shifting deeply entrenched solo driving practices.
| REFERENCE: Briac Nokplim Akouh, Lucia Bosone, Patricia Delhomme, Unpacking solo driving: how contextual and psychological factors shape commuters’ intentions in the Paris region, Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Volume 35, 2026, 101766, ISSN 2590-1982, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2025.101766. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590198225004452) |
